Bioenergie, Biokraftstoffe, Palmöl, Soja, Jatropha Bearbeiten
Whether biofuels offer carbon savings depends on how they are produced. Converting rainforests, peatlands, savannas, or grasslands to produce food-based biofuels in Brazil, Southeast Asia, and the United States creates a ‘biofuel carbon debt’ by releasing 17 to 420 times more CO2 than the annual greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions these biofuels provide by displacing fossil fuels. In contrast, biofuels made from waste biomass or from biomass grown on abandoned agricultural lands planted with perennials incur little or no carbon debt and offer immediate and sustained GHG advantages.[1]
By using a worldwide agricultural model to estimate emissions from land-use change, we found that corn-based ethanol, instead of producing a 20% savings, nearly doubles greenhouse emissions over 30 years and increases greenhouse gases for 167 years. Biofuels from switchgrass, if grown on U.S. corn lands, increase emissions by 50%.[2]
Biofuels derived from low-input high-diversity (LIHD) mixtures of native grassland perennials can provide more usable energy, greater greenhouse gas reductions, and less agrichemical pollution per hectare than can corn grain ethanol or soybean biodiesel.[3]
Neuartige Waldschäden / Waldsterben Bearbeiten
Neuartige Waldschäden (früher Waldsterben) beschreiben die Gesamtheit von Krankheitssymptomen an Nadeln und Blättern von Bäumen, deren Ursachen im Gegensatz zu natürlichen Waldschäden anthropogener Natur sind[4].
Zur Medienberichterstattung über "Waldsterben" Bearbeiten
[5] Chronik einer Panik. Artikel aus der ZEIT
[6] Und Ewig sterben die Wälder. ZEIT.
[7] Waldsterben. ZEIT, 2002
[8] Waldsterben und Öffentlichkeitsarbeit der FoWi
[9] Stellungnahme des Umweltrates zu einem Waldzustandsbericht
[10] Rückbetrachtung in der Naturwissenschaftlichen Rundschau
[11] Waldschäden - Nur ein Medienklischee?
[12] Künast-Meldung
[13] NABU-Reaktion auf Künast
Methodisches, Ursachen Bearbeiten
[14] Allgemeine Abhandlung, Waldsterben vs. Neuartige Waldschäden
[15] Skript ETH
[16] Handbuch Umweltchemie, Saurer Regen als Hauptursache
[17] Springer Umweltlexikon
[18] Euröpäische Waldzustandserfassung, BFH
[19] mehr zur Europäischen Waldzustandserfassung, BFH
[20] Kritik an der Erhebungsmethode
Aktuelle, auch wissenschaftliche Bewertung Bearbeiten
[21] Der Bürger im Staat. Artikel von Prof. Dr. E.-E. Hildebrand, Uni Freiburg
[22] Alle Waldzustandsbericht der "Schutzgemeinschaft Deutscher Wald"
[23] BMELV zu den Neuartigen Waldschäden
[24] "Waldsterben in the Forests of Central Europe and Eastern North America: Fantasy or Reality?" Sehr detaillierte Abhandlung in "Plant Disease", Nr. 78-11, Seiten 1021-1034
NTFP Bearbeiten
Aus FAO (SOFO): Welternährungsorganisation der Vereinten Nationen (FAO): "State of the world's forests". Online verfügbar
Factors affecting the development of NWFPs
Traditionally, maximizing revenue from timber production has driven forest policy and management decisions in many countries, and silvicultural systems have been designed specifically to enhance timber production. These policies and practices have in some places conflicted with the interests of forest-dwellers and people dependent on the forest for other uses and products, and have limited the development potential of NWFPs. With the increased recognition of the importance of NWFPs, however, more attention is being put on the development of forest management systems for sustainable use of both wood and non-wood products and services and to ensuring equitable distribution of the benefits.
The development of NWFPs has been limited, however, by the lack of accurate data on production and trade and also by weaknesses in the policy and institutional structures needed to support it. The economic importance of NWFPs is generally underestimated because much of the production and consumption is at subsistence level, and thus, data are rarely collected or published at a national level. When data on NWFPs are recorded, underreporting, double counting, grouping of NWFPs at different stages of processing or together with other products, and the use of unrealistic prices, are systematic shortcomings of such statistics. Clearly, improved statistical information will both clarify the economic significance of NWFPs and their trends, and provide essential information for management purposes.
Despite the growing attention given in many countries to the promotion and development of NWFPs, it is presently impossible to assess whether their socio-economic contribution has become more or less important. This is not only because of the lack of reliable time series of production and trade data for the majority of NWFPs, but is also due to the difficulty of differentiating production and trade from agricultural sources.
The potential for increased commercialization of NWFPs, however, would appear to be large if judged simply by the number of plant and animal products of known value for human use. Successful (and sustainable) commercialization of a NWFP that is currently collected and used in the household or sold in small quantities in a local market, however, is extremely difficult. There are a range of technical needs, and social and economic implications involved in doing so, and improved marketing processes and structures are essential. A number of important issues are being grappled with in current efforts to tap the economic potential of NWFPs. These include: the need to develop suitable management systems to avoid over-harvesting of the product in the wild; clarification of user rights over the resource, particularly where it is considered common property; research and development needs in semi-domesticating or domesticating a wild resource; development of effective marketing systems for the product; various legal issues, including intellectual property rights (how the country, the local user or other entity can be adequately compensated for use of the resource by outsiders) and patent rights in the case of research of an active ingredient from a national product leading to its synthesis. Much of the current effort on NWFP development, such as the establishment of extractive reserves, is focusing on providing or increasing alternative sources of income for forest dwellers or poor populations living near the forest. Large-scale commercialization of a product is neither guaranteed to benefit these people nor to protect the resource. It may not even be technically feasible or economically viable.
Consistent policies and support which specifically govern the management, harvesting and processing of NWFPs are lacking in most countries, but some (e.g., Indonesia, India and Turkey) have recently made some effort to redress this. Overall, the development and implementation of national policy frameworks to support the development of NWFPs remains a major challenge.
Einzelnachweise Bearbeiten
- ↑ Joseph Fargione, Jason Hill, David Tilman, Stephen Polasky, Peter Hawthorne: "Land Clearing and the Biofuel Carbon Debt". Science vom 7 Februar 2008, abgerufen am 15. April 2008
- ↑ Timothy Searchinger et al.: "Use of U.S. Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases Through Emissions from Land-Use Change". Science 319 (5867), 1238 vom Februar 2008, abgerufen am 15. April 2008
- ↑ David Tilman, Jason Hill, and Clarence Lehman: "Carbon-Negative Biofuels from Low-Input High-Diversity Grassland Biomass". Science 314 (5805), 1598. [DOI: 10.1126/science.1133306] vom 8. Dezember 2006, abgerufen am 15. April 2008.
- ↑ Das Kosmos Wald- und Forstlexikon. 2002. Stuttgart. S. 793. ISBN 3-44009316-6
- ↑ [1]
- ↑ [2]
- ↑ [3]
- ↑ [4]
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- ↑ [7]
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- ↑ [10]
- ↑ [11]
- ↑ [12]
- ↑ [13]
- ↑ [14]
- ↑ [15]
- ↑ [16]
- ↑ [17]
- ↑ [18]
- ↑ [19]
- ↑ [20] "Waldsterben in the Forests of Central Europe and Eastern North America: Fantasy or Reality?" Sehr detaillierte Abhandlung in "Plant Disease, Nr. 78-11, Seiten 1021-1034